BASIC PRINCIPLES OF BIBLE INTERPRETATION

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The word Bible is derived from the Greek biblia which means “the books”. The King James Bible has 66 books, 39 of which are in the Hebrew Bible known by Christians as the Old Testament and 27 in the New Testament. There are certain basic facts we must know about the Bible. 

  1. God inspired holy men to write the Bible (2 Tim. 3:16, 17; 2 Pet. 1:21). The inspiration came from God but the authorship is that of men. The exception to this is the Ten Commandments which God Himself wrote on two stone tablets. The message is communicated by human beings who used different forms of writing – narrative literature and figurative expressions which include similes, metaphors, allegories, hyperboles, parallelisms, metonymies, symbolisms, personifications, anthropomorphisms, et al. Your ability to recognize them wherever they are used will enhance your ability to grasp what the Bible teaches. Brief definitions of some of them with few examples have been made for you in an appendix to this article. 
  2. The writings in the Bible can be classified as history, command (or law), warnings, instructions, rebukes, promises, or prophecy. Many of the prophecies have been fulfilled while some are yet to be fulfilled. 
  3. The writers lived under different historical backgrounds. Their messages were for specified audiences with specific purpose(s) in mind. The entire Bible is a book of moral and spiritual instruction. Therefore, the writings of the Bible are meant to guide people of all ages through the use of scriptural applications of its contents. The reader should however note that biblical application is not the same thing as biblical interpretation. Interpretation seeks to bring out the mind of the writer, that is, the true meaning of the message, phrases or words he has written. Proper application of the Scriptures is contingent upon their proper interpretation. 
  4. The Bible was originally written in three languages. Most of the Hebrew (or Old Testament) books were written in Hebrew while some parts of it was written in Aramaic. Aramaic is the language of the Arameans (or Syrians). (The parts written in Aramaic are Ezra 4:8 – 6:18; 7:12-26; Daniel 2:4 – 7:28; Jeremiah 10:11). The New Testament books were written in Koine Greek. The Old Testament books were later translated into Koine Greek known as Septuagint (usually written as LXX). The earliest known translation from these languages was into Latin by Jerome, a work done by him between 382 and 405 AD. Ideally, ability to properly interpret the Scriptures requires the learning of the three original languages and Latin. 

Today’s Christian need not worry unduly because he has not learnt the languages. The various English Versions were produced by experts in these languages. Where there are variants of some words, phrases or passages, appropriate notes and comments have been made by many of them to guide the Bible student. Various textual criticisms of the original texts and commentaries are also available to the sincere seeker after truth. 

  • There are few human errors seen in the Bible but they are not material enough to obliterate the truthfulness and the reliability of the scriptures. For example, Matthew wrote that there were two demoniacs healed by Jesus (Matt. 8:28-34) but Mark and Luke recorded one (Mark 5:1-20; Luke 8:26-39). The undeniable fact is that He healed a demoniac. God has preserved the truthfulness and reliability of the scriptures such that every true and sincere Christian who has God’s spirit in him or her can place total reliance on the sanctity of the Bible. In the few places where human beings have made alterations or intrusions in the scriptures they have been known and appropriate annotations have been made in many versions of the Bible. 
  • Each form of writing require a different approach to interpretation. For example, any historical writing require a proper understanding of the culture, language, occupation and other historical facts which were in existence at the time of the writer. The approach will be different when one is interpreting a prophecy. Even prophecies which are yet to be fulfilled cannot be interpreted like fulfilled prophecies since the latter will only entail comparing the fulfilment with what was foretold and bringing out salient learning points from them. 

BIBLICAL HERMENEUTICS 

Hermeneutics is a branch of knowledge that deals with the principles of interpretation and explanation of literary texts. Although this branch of knowledge is applicable to all forms of communication, verbal and nonverbal, it has been most beneficially applied to the interpretation and explanation of Bible texts. 

One of the key reasons Bible teachers have taught erroneous or false doctrines is their failure to meticulously and faithfully apply the rules of hermeneutics. 

Although all of us, including this author, cannot delve into the deepest level of hermeneutics, it is necessary for all Christian leaders and teachers to know some of the basic principles of biblical hermeneutics or interpretation. This is the purpose of this article. 

GENERAL RULES OF BIBLE INTERPRETATION  

In this section, I want to draw my readers’ attention to some of the laws of hermeneutics.  

1.      The Bible Is Mostly Literal 

The most important rule of Bible interpretation is that the Bible should be interpreted literally. The Bible should be understood in its normal or plain meaning, unless the passage being studied is found to be symbolic or contains figurative language. The Bible says what it means and means what it says. One writer says that “about 25,007 verses of the Bible which make up about 80 percent of it contains simple history, commands, warnings, promises, rebukes, and plain instructions by means of which men may understand the will of God.” For example, the words or phrases such as “Jesus was tired out by the journey” (John 4:6), “Jesus wept” (John 11:35), or His words, “my Father is greater than I” (John 14:28) are literal statements and should be so understood. The five stones David picked from a stream (1 Sam. 17:40) are also literal stones. 

Any attempt to spiritualize literal biblical texts should be avoided because such attempts have not enhanced a better understanding of the Scriptures. They have, at best, mystified what God intended to make as plain as possible. For example, when a teacher says the five smooth stones David picked from a stream represent the five letters in JESUS, that teacher has not added anything to our understanding of the Bible. He has failed to understand that JESUS is the English corruption of the Hebrew YEHOSHUA (or YESHUA for short). Both of them have more than five Roman letters. It must be said that while it was the divine power of God that made David’s ordinary stone sink into Goliath’s skull like a bullet fired from a modern assault gun, there is no spiritual significance of “five” as a number more than the fact that David, acting on faith, considered the five stones as being enough to pull down the giant.  

Many teachers of the Bible make the mistake of trying to read between the lines of scripture to come up with esoteric or novel meanings that are not truly in view in the texts, as if every Bible passage has a hidden scriptural truth that must be decrypted or decoded. This has led to many erroneous or false interpretations. Allegorizing every Bible verse also prevent the literal understanding of scriptures and keeps Christians away from getting the meaning intended for them by God. 

One major problem in Bible interpretation is the ability of the scholar to distinguish literal from figurative or symbolic texts. If a text is literal but the one reading it views it as symbolic, his or her interpretation of that text will be incorrect or false. The same is the case if a passage is symbolic but the scholar understands it as a literal text. He or she will make a wrong interpretation of it. This is the problem that has plagued the church because some people interpret the Bible as if every text is literal while others view everything in the Bible as mysterious, having hidden meanings. 

2.      Adopt Exegesis, Avoid Eisegesis 

The word exegesis literally means “to lead out of” and it involves the exposition or explanation of a scriptural text based on a careful, objective analysis. The careful analysis is meant to bring out the true or correct meaning intended by the author of the text. Eisegesis on the other hand, is the interpretation of a scriptural text by reading into it one’s own ideas but not what really is there. Many false interpretations of scripture are traceable to this problem of eisegesis. Many teachers of the Bible have given out explanations which are based on their own assumptions or presumptions. They don’t take the pains of doing careful, critical analysis of the scriptures to enable them “draw out” the true or correct meaning of the passages being studied.  

Exegesis is concerned with discovering the true meaning of the text, respecting the grammar of the language used, the syntax and setting of the scripture, et alia. Eisegesis is concerned with making a point, even at the expense of the meaning of the words used by the author. 

Every sincere teacher of God’s word must adopt exegetical study of the word because it is commanded that we “Do your best to present yourself to God, as one approved, a workman who does not need to be ashamed, and who correctly handles the word of truth.” (2 Tim. 2:15, NIV). All the many teachers of the Bible who have been reading their own assumptions or presumptions into the Bible cannot pass for men and women who correctly handle the word of truth. They should all turn away from eisegesis. 

3.      Interpret Bible Historically, Grammatically and Contextually 

To interpret a passage historically means we must understand the historical background and culture surrounding the author. For example, to have a knowledge of the cultural practices of the people in the days of Elisha helps us understand what he meant when he told his servant not to greet anyone as he hurried to go and place the prophet’s staff on the body of the dead child of a Shunammite woman (2 Kings 4:29). One may not be able to correctly interpret “the eye of a needle” as used by Jesus Christ in the gospels unless one understands how city walls were built as at that time – the narrow openings in the walls were figuratively called “eyes of needles.” 

Interpreting a passage grammatically requires one to follow the rules of grammar of the particular language used in writing the original text. For example, Greek grammar uses feminine and masculine pronouns for some non-personal things. Wisdom (Greek: Sophia) is treated as feminine (Prov. 8:1, 2; Matt. 11:19; Luke 7:35) while the Helper or Advocate (Greek: parakletos) is considered a masculine noun. Therefore, a masculine pronoun must be used for it (John 14:16,17,26; 15:26; 16:7). But grammatical gender does not necessarily mean that the object is a literal person having biological gender. This is why we see personal pronouns used for inanimate things like the Passover feast (Exod. 13:10 KJV), a tree (Dan. 4:14-15 KJV), and salt (Matt. 5:13 KJV). 

Interpreting a passage contextually involves considering the context of the verse or passage which we are studying. The context includes the verses immediately preceding and following the verse or passage under consideration, the chapter, the book, and most broadly, the whole Bible. We must not overlook the immediate context as well as the broader context if we must correctly handle the word of truth. 

If we seek to “draw out” the truth from the Bible we must interpret the Bible contextually, grammatically and historically. But this should be done in conjunction with our adherence to the other rules of Bible interpretation. 

4.      We Must Compare Scripture with Scripture 

One interesting thing about the Bible is that almost every subject of faith and right relationship with God and fellow human beings is strewn over different verses, chapters and books of the Bible. It follows, therefore, that if we seek to have a true and correct interpretation of any subject, we must examine what the available scriptures say on that subject. This is why comparison of scripture with scripture is one of the important steps in biblical interpretation. It is by a strict and honest observance of this rule that the true meaning of any subject can be obtained if every other rule fails. 

Nearly every false religion and religious idea is built upon a passage of scripture that someone has interpreted to suit his own idea rather than allowing the Bible to interpret itself by comparing scripture with scripture. If our interpretation does not harmonize with every passage on a particular subject, we should not allow bigotry or our preferences make us argue against any opposing scripture. We must pray and dig deeper into all relevant scriptures until the seeming contradictions are cleared up. If our interpretation of any subject or passage of the Bible is correct, it will harmonize with all the scriptures that touch on that subject. 

A particular scripture may not give us a perfect knowledge on a subject but another one may give us all the light we need. For example, the unbelieving Jews said Jesus used Beelzebub to drive out demons from people. He told them He cast demons out by the power of God. Luke wrote that He did this by using God’s finger (Luke 11:20). Matthew’s account is that He cast the demons out by the Spirit of God (Matt. 12:28). From the account of Matthew, we are made to understand that the holy Spirit of God is what Jesus Christ termed the finger of God. 

An Example  

We read in 1 John 5:20 “We know that the Son of God has come and has given us understanding, so that we may know him who is true. And we are in him who is true – even in his Son Jesus Christ. He is the true God and eternal life.” (NIV)  

The verse mentions the Son of God, Jesus Christ. It also mentions the one who is true, that is God. The last sentence in the verse starts with “This” which is immediately preceded by Jesus Christ. This had made many theologians and teachers conclude that Jesus Christ is the true God. There are many others who disagree with this and teach that God the Father is the true God. There is therefore a controversy as to who the verse says is the true God. 

This is one Bible passage that brings to the fore the need of consistent, diligent and faithful application of the rules of Bible interpretation by our teachers. For if this has been done, there should be no controversy as to who the true God is. Note: 

  • Other scriptures have unambiguously identified the true God. Jeremiah said YHWH (or Yahweh) is the true God; He is the living God and the everlasting King (Jer. 10:10). Jesus Christ, the true witness, Himself said that eternal life is gained by knowing the Father the and ONLY TRUE GOD as well as knowing Jesus Christ whom the only true God has sent (John 17:3). Before making this statement, He had said that the Father is the only God (John 5:44). The Apostle Paul, in 1 Thes. 1:9-10 also makes it clear that Jesus Christ is not the true God. He said, “for they themselves report what kind of reception you gave us. They tell how you turned to God from idols to serve the living and true God, and to wait for his Son from heaven, whom he raised from the dead—Jesus, who rescues us from the coming wrath” (1 Thes. 1:9-10 NIV). Apostle Paul made it very clear in this passage that Jesus Christ is the Son of the true and living God. 
  • Those who conclude that Jesus Christ is the true God did not examine the entire context. If they did, they would have concluded that Apostle John was saying that this [one who is true] is the true God and eternal life. 
  • There are other scriptures where the style of writing in 1 John 5:20 is also found. If a sentence or phrase is therefore ascribed, in all cases, to the noun or pronoun immediately preceding it, very wrong or false conclusions will be made. It will lead us to conclude that Joseph was the one who oppressed the Israelites (Acts 7:17-19) instead of the King who did not know Joseph. It will also lead us to conclude that the man who was healed through Peter and John is the “stone which the builders rejected.” (Acts 4:10, 11). Read also 2 John 1:7 where it is written (NKJV), “For many deceivers have gone out into the world who do not confess Jesus Christ as coming in the flesh. This is the deceiver and an antichrist”. Here, the article “This” is immediately preceded by the noun Jesus Christ, but can anyone be justified to say that Jesus Christ is the deceiver and an antichrist? Does that sound sensible and logical? No! The article “this” in the second sentence refers to the one who does not confess Jesus Christ as coming in the flesh. 

Just as we cannot rightly ascribe the article “this” to the noun immediately preceding it in the three examples, no more can we say that Jesus Christ is the true God simply because the last sentence is immediately preceded by the proper noun Jesus Christ.  

  • The Apostle John was simply repeating what he heard from the mouth of the Master which he (John) had already written down in John 17:3. 
  • Many scriptures have said it that God the Father is the God of our Lord Jesus Christ (Eph. 1:3, 17; 2 Cor. 11:31; 1 Pet. 1:3). Paul specifically said that the Father is the God of our Lord Jesus Christ. And this was just an affirmation of what Jesus Christ Himself had pronounced from His own mouth. The Bible makes it clear that God is supreme over Jesus Christ (1 Cor. 11:3; 15:28). These and many other scriptures which clearly show the supremacy of God over Christ have rubbished the teaching that Christ Jesus is the one referred to as the true God in 1 John 5:20. That interpretation is borne out of ignorance and is merely conjectural. They also show that many Bible teachers do not faithfully follow the rules of Bible interpretation. 

5.      The Law of First Mention 

We should not neglect to apply the law (or principle or rule) of first mention when we are interpreting scriptures. 

The “law of first mention” is the principle of the interpretation of scripture which states that the first mention or occurrence of a subject in the Bible establishes an unchangeable pattern, with that subject remaining unchanged in the mind of God throughout scripture. 

Dr. F. E. Marsh, a Baptist pastor, in his book titled “The Structural Principles of The Bible” defines the law this way: “The first time a word occurs in the scriptures gives the key to understanding its meaning in every other place.”  

Many Bible expositors have found this principle very helpful. Benjamin Willis Newton of the Plymouth Brethren movement (in the 19th century) wrote this about the principle: “I find in scripture a principle of interpretation, which I believe, if conscientiously adopted, will serve as an unfailing guide as to the mind of God as contained therein. The first mention of a thing, the very first words of any subject, of which the Holy Spirit is going to treat, is the keystone of the whole matter.”  

Someone else says, “This is the law we have long since noticed and have never yet found to fail. The first occurrence of a word, or an expression, or an utterance is the key to subsequent meanings, or at least a guide to the essential point connected with it.”  

Still another person says, “The first time a thing is mentioned in the Word of God you will find the truth that will carry it all the way through the Scriptures. You must remember that there is one Speaker and one guiding and controlling, governing mind. “God who at various times and in various ways spoke in time past to the fathers through the prophets has in these last days spoken to us through His Son” (Hebrews 1:1). No matter when the message was given, nor how, God was the Speaker. Since there is only one Speaker, He knows from the beginning what He is going to say and can shape his utterance so as to forecast, at the very outset, what is to follow.”

The book of Genesis, being the book of beginnings, contains many “first-mentions”. It is very important to understand the mind of God in the passages where words or subjects are first mentioned as such comprehension aid our understanding of subsequent usage of the words or concepts. 

The principle of first mention is indeed very important to Bible scholars. However, it must be applied in conjunction with other important principles of Bible interpretation.  

6.      We Must Be Sincere Truth-Seekers 

We may know all the laws of hermeneutics and have all that we need to understand the Bible, but if we don’t have the love of the truth in our hearts, we will never find the truth.  

Why are false prophets and false teachers having such a large following? It is because many people who claim to be Christians do not love the truth (2Thes. 2:10). A sincere seeker after God’s truth will not take sides with denominational error or falsehood and begin to argue against biblical truth. No one can do anything against the truth. It remains the truth forever. But we can deliberately or ignorantly become enemies of the truth. All the Christians who think their faith is well-grounded but who argue against the truth are standing on a dangerous ground. 

Once again, I must warn my fellow Christians irrespective of their denominations. It is our personal responsibility to stand on biblical truth rather than on the doctrines of men taught by “our church”.  

It is easy to identify most false doctrines. The Bible says it is a doctrine which (1) does not agree with the true words of our Lord Jesus Christ, and (2) does not accord with godliness (1 Tim. 6:3). It follows, therefore, that anyone who teaches a doctrine that opposes the words of Jesus Christ is teaching errors or falsehoods. He or she is a false teacher if he or she refuses to take correction after being confronted with the truth. Anyone who argues against biblical truth in defense of the contradictory teachings of his or her denomination or leader may think he or she is a true Christian but in truth is a deceiver. Their leaders make them believe they are opposing falsehood but, in reality, they are opposing Christ and His doctrine. 

COME, LET US REBUILD THE FOUNDATION 

I think one of the reasons false doctrines have held sway in Christendom for so long is because many of our leaders, especially in Africa, are not grounded in the basic biblical truths. Many of our leaders have mediocre knowledge of the Christian faith. We are in a hurry to win the world for Christ but fail to build a solid foundation for the faith we profess. 

If church leaders do not have proper understanding of the teachings of the Bible, how will they be able to make others know the doctrine of God? Sadly enough, our churches are full of pastors and teachers who are so ignorant about many Bible teachings. Worse is the fact that many denominational leaders and members are so welded to their denominational dogmas that it is almost impossible to rescue them from their errors and false beliefs. Almost all Christian denominations suffer from doctrinal delusions and denominational prejudices or illusions. 

The timetable of Christ’s second coming is in the hand of God. None of us knows whether the Lord will come in the next hour, day, year, decade, century or thousands of years from now. Therefore, while we await the second coming of the Lord, let us start to rebuild the foundation of our faith. It is not enough to teach the pastors only the doctrines their leaders believe in. Pastors in all the churches, especially in Africa, need to have some basic knowledge of important historical events that have taken place in Christendom since the first century AD. Examples are the development of the Bible from the original writings in scrolls to their modern-day electronic versions, the (Ecumenical) Councils, the Crusades, the Creeds in Christendom (especially, the Apostles Creed, the Nicene-Constantinopolitan and the Athanasian Creeds), the reformation et alia. It is very wrong to think that we don’t need to go to theological colleges, seminaries or universities to acquire sound knowledge of these things. There is no reason why those who teach in Sunday schools or Bible classes in our churches should not know the basic principles of Bible interpretation which is discussed in this article. 

With every sense of concern, I call on all Christian leaders to encourage their followers to get sensitized on these important subjects. They will aid our understanding of the Bible. On many occasions, I have heard associate pastors in our leading Pentecostal churches say “What is that?” whenever I mention things like Codex, Comma Johanneum, Textus Receptus, Theotokos, Sabellianism, the Great Schism, Athanasian Creed, Watcher, Masoretic Texts, Tanakh, Torah, Aramaic, Koine Greek, Septuagint (LXX), rabbinic and patristic writings, et alia. But these are just a few of the basic terms that all teachers and pastors in our churches ought to know if they have had a good foundation. Alas, we claim to be spiritually inclined but because of our lack of the basic knowledge of the Bible, we have allowed men to put us in their cages through dangerous psychological manipulations or indoctrinations. We have allowed men to have full control of our minds while we erroneously think we are in the Bible faith. Many there are in all our churches who now worship their leaders instead of God and His Christ. What a pitiable state the church is in (Luke 18:8; Rev. 3:17). The truth of the matter is that our spirituality is faulty if it is hinged on a false understanding of God and His Word. Many churches today have gone into syncretism or even plain-faced sorcery because they don’t know the scriptures.  

Year after year, we have refused to go beyond teaching ourselves the elementary principles of the Christian faith (Heb. 6:1-3). The church as a result has become hard-baked in mediocrity, gullibility, indolence, and prejudices. Who is to blame? My opinion is that our leaders have more of the blame. They are the ones who have brainwashed their members into worshipping them as the “emperors” of their individual empires. They enjoy being worshipped; hence they will not want to see the people grow higher in knowledge and faith. I appeal to all our leaders to allow Jesus Christ be the Lord of the church He bought with His own blood, to the glory of God the Father. They should stop sitting on the seat meant for Jesus Christ who is the rightful Lord of all churches named after Him. 

If all of us will humble ourselves and repent of our pride and devious human manipulations and unbridled twisting of scriptures for egotistic and covetous considerations, God will restore His holy spirit to our churches. Then we will see the glory of God as it was in the days of the apostles. Let us go deeper in our study of the word and stop mystifying ignorance, laziness and gullibility in our churches, especially in Africa. 

APPENDIX  

Simile 

A simile is a figure of speech in which two essentially unlike things are compared, usually using the words “like” or “as” in order to bring out a quality common to both of them. Similes are not the same thing as mere comparisons. If someone says “You look like him,” that’s not a simile. But if he should say “Your face shines like the sun,” he has used a simile. Similes are common in the Bible. Examples include: 

“As I looked, thrones were set in place, and the Ancient of Days took his seat. His clothing was as white as snow; the hair of his head was white like wool. His throne was flaming with fire, and its wheels were all ablaze” (Daniel 7:9 NIV).  

“I am sending you out like sheep among wolves. Therefore be as shrewd as snakes and as innocent as doves” (Matt. 10:16 NIV). 

“Be alert and of sober mind. Your enemy the devil prowls around like a roaring lion looking for someone to devour” (1 Peter 5:8 NIV).  

Here, Apostle Peter likened the patrolling of the earth by the Devil (Job 1:7) to the prowling of a roaring lion when hunting for its prey. It should be noted that Peter did not call the Devil a lion in this place. He merely brought out two similarities between the Devil and the lion – prowling and devouring others. He made his audience know that the Devil is as destructive to humans as the lion is to other animals. 

Metaphor 

A metaphor is a figure of speech containing an implied comparison in which a word or phrase ordinarily and primarily used of one thing is applied to another, as in, “A mighty fortress is our God.” A metaphor is essentially the same as a simile except that the words “like” or “as” are not used. Examples:  

“You [God] are my hiding place and my shield; I hope in your word” (Psalm 119:114 ESV, word in square bracket added by me). 

“When John saw many Pharisees and Sadducees coming to him to be baptized, he said to them, ‘You snakes—who told you that you could escape from the punishment God is about to send?’” (Matt. 3:7 GNT). 

“At that very hour some Pharisees came and said to him, ‘Get away from here, for Herod wants to kill you.’ And he said to them, ‘Go and tell that fox, ‘Behold, I cast out demons and perform cures today and tomorrow, and the third day I finish my course’” (Luke 13:31-32 ESV). 

Allegory 

An allegory is a story, play, poem, picture, or other work in which the characters and events represent particular qualities or ideas that relate to morals, religion, or politics. The moonlight stories we were told in our childhood days are allegories. 

 Examples: 

Pilgrim’s Progress by John Bunyan – an allegory of the spiritual journey of man. 

The Chronicles of Narnia by C. S. Lewis. 

The parables in the Bible are allegories. 

Parallelism 

A parallelism (also called parallel structure or parallel construction) is the repetition of the same grammatical form in two or more parts of a sentence. 

Parallelisms have been much used in Hebrew Scriptures, especially in the books of Job, Psalms, Proverbs, Ecclesiastes, and Lamentations. It is less used in the New Testament. 

Robert Loath (1710-1787), the Anglican Bishop of the Diocese of London was probably the first modern Bible scholar to have noticed the poetic structure of the Psalms. He identified three types of Hebrew parallelism – synonymous, antithetic, and synthetic parallelisms: 

  • Synonymous parallelism involves the repetition, in the second part, of what has already been expressed in the first, while simply varying the words. 
  • In antithetic parallelism, the second part presents the opposite side of the same thought. 
  • Synthetic (also called the constructive and epithetic)  parallelism involves the completion or expansion of the first part in the second part. 

Other types of biblical parallelism, identified in the Bible by other scholars include emblematic, chiastic, staircase, and Janus parallelisms. You may make your own research on them. 

Examples of biblical parallelism include the following: 

Synonymous Parallelism 

“The Spirit of God has made me; the breath of the Almighty gives me life” (Job 33:4 NIV).  

“Surely God will never do wickedly, Nor will the Almighty pervert justice” (Job 34:12 NKJV).  

(The word “Almighty” (Hebrew: “Shaddai,” Greek: “Pantokrator”) is used 48 times in the Old Testament and 10 times in the New Testament. The word is used 31 times in Job. Out of the 31 occurrences in Job, it is used 22 times as synonymous parallelism of God.) 

“Surely you know how it has been from of old, ever since mankind was placed on the earth, that the mirth of the wicked is brief, the joy of the godless lasts but a moment. (Job 20:4-5 NIV). 

“And Mary said: My soul glorifies the Lord and my spirit rejoices in God my Savior” (Luke 1:46-47 NIV). 

Antithetic Parallelism 

“For the Lord knows the way of the righteous, But the way of the ungodly shall perish” (Psa. 1:6 NKJV).  

“those the Lord blesses will inherit the land, but those he curses will be destroyed” (Psa. 37:22 NIV).  

“All the horns of the wicked I will also cut off, But the horns of the righteous shall be exalted.” (Psa. 75:10 NKJV). 

Synthetic Parallelism 

“Ascribe to the Lord, you heavenly beings, ascribe to the Lord glory and strength. Ascribe to the Lord the glory due his name; worship the Lord in the splendor of his holiness” (Psa. 29:1-2 NIV). 

Hyperbole 

A hyperbole is an exaggerated statement or claim not meant to be taken literally.  

Examples include: 

“If your right eye causes you to sin, poke it out and throw it away. It is better to lose one part of your body, than for your whole body to end up in hell. If your right hand causes you to sin, chop it off and throw it away! It is better to lose one part of your body, than for your whole body to be thrown into hell” (Matt. 5:29-30 CEV) 

The Lord Jesus Christ was not saying we should literally gouge out our eyes and cut off our hands in order not to sin. But He was saying we should not tolerate sin in our lives and we must take every aggressive measures to avoid sinning because sin will ultimately lead to destruction. 

“For what profit is it to a man if he gains the whole world, and is himself destroyed or lost?” (Luke 9:25 NKJV). 

The Lord here made a superlative emphasis on the human soul. He knew that it is impossible for anyone to have so much that he becomes the owner of the whole world. He suggested here that even if it were possible, owning the whole world is worthless in comparison with entry into the Kingdom of God. 

A few other examples of hyperbole can be seen in 2 Chron. 1:15, Job 29:6, Matt. 23:24, Mark 1:4-5, Luke 14:26, John 12:19, Col. 3:5. 

Metonymy 

Wikipedia defines metonymy as a figure of speech in which a thing or concept is referred to by the name of something closely associated with that thing or concept. 

The words metonymy and  metonym come from the Greek metonymia which literally translates as “change of name.”   

Examples of “metonymy” include “crown” meaning a king or queen, “Silicon Valley” for computer technology, “Washington” for the U.S. government, “dish” for an entire plate of food, “Hollywood” (“Nollywood” in Nigeria) for the film industry, “tongue” for language, “brass” for high-ranking officials, et al. 

Examples of metonymy used in the Bible include: 

  • Matthew is the only gospel author who used the phrase “the kingdom of heaven.” In the other gospels, the Acts, and the epistles, the term used 65 times is “the kingdom of God.” Matthew also used this latter phrase five times. The two phrases refer to one and the same kingdom of God. In all the 33 times Matthew used the term “the kingdom of heaven,” the word “heaven” is a metonymy for God.  
  • The names of men have been used as metonymies for their writings. In Luke 16:29,31, “Moses and the prophets” is used as a metonymy for the books written by them. “Isaiah” is also used in Acts 8:28 as a metonymy for the book written by him. The phrase “let them hear them” does not mean that Moses and the prophets will rise from their graves and begin to preach to them. It means as their writings are read to people, as seen in Neh. 8:1-12, they must listen, believe and obey. See also: “But Paul and     Barnabas traveled inland to Antioch of Pisidia. On the Sabbath they went to the synagogue for the services. After the usual readings from the books of Moses and the prophets, those in charge of the service sent them this message: “Brothers, if you have any word of encouragement for the people, come and give it.” (Acts 13:14-15 NLT). 
  • The name of a place is also used as metonymy for its inhabitants. This is the sense in which Matthew said that “Jerusalem went out to him [John the Baptist]” (Matt. 3:5, KJV). In another place we read, “Jerusalem, Jerusalem! You who kill the prophets and stone those who were sent to you. How often I wanted to gather your people together, just as a hen gathers her chicks under her wings. But you didn’t want that. Look, your house is left to you deserted” (Matt. 23:37-38 CEB).  

It was not the city that was killing the prophets and stoning God’s messengers. It was the inhabitants. Jerusalem is used, as metonymy, to represent its inhabitants. 

Personification 

Personification is the attribution of a personal nature or human characteristics to something nonhuman, or the representation of an abstract quality in human form.  

Examples of personification abound in the Bible. A few of them are given here: 

  • Wisdom is personified as a noble, rich, and powerful woman – one that everyone should desire as a kinswoman. “Wisdom shouts in the streets. She cries out in the public square. She calls to the crowds along the main street, to those gathered in front of the city gate” (Prov. 1:20,21 NLT).  

“Wisdom has built her house; she has carved its seven columns. She has prepared a great banquet, mixed the wines, and set the table. She has sent her servants to invite everyone to come. She calls out from the heights overlooking the city. “Come in with me,” she urges the simple. To those who lack good judgment, she says, “Come, eat my food, and drink the wine I have mixed. Leave your simple ways behind, and begin to live; learn to use good judgment.” (Prov. 9:1-6 NLT). 

“Say to wisdom, ‘You are my sister,’ and to insight, ‘You are my relative.’” (Prov. 7:4 NIV).

“The Son of Man came eating and drinking, and they say, ‘Look, a glutton and a winebibber, a friend of tax collectors and sinners!’ But wisdom is justified by her children.” (Matt. 11:19 NKJV).

Here, the children of wisdom mean the end results of the actions of wisdom or the blameless and noble lives of those who apply wisdom in all they do. 

  • Sin has been personified in many places in the Bible. It is said to be lurking at Cain’s door (Gen. 4:7); it is said to reign as a king (Rom. 5:21); sin deceived me and… killed me (Rom.7:11); don’t let sin be your master (Rom. 6:14). 
  • The Law is also personified as a guardian who led us to Christ (Gal. 3:24,25); as a former husband who had control over us (Rom. 7:1-4). 
  • Floods have been said to clap their hands and hills are said to be joyful (Psa. 98:8). 
  • “When the waters saw you, O God, when the waters saw you, they were afraid; indeed, the deep trembled. (Psa. 77:16 ESV). 
  • “The moon will be dismayed, the sun ashamed; for the Lord Almighty will reign on Mount Zion and in Jerusalem, and before its elders—with great glory. (Isa. 24:23 NIV). Compare Matt. 24:29-31; Mark 13:24-27; Rev. 21:23. 

Anthropomorphism 

It is the attribution of human characteristics or behaviours to an object, animal, or a god. 

Literary works like “Alice in Wonderland,” “Peter Rabbit,” and “Winnie-the-Pooh” are classical examples of anthropomorphism. 

In the Bible, God is described as having eyes (2 Chron. 16:9; Amos 9:3), ears (2 King 19:6; Psa. 31:2; 86:1; Dan. 9:18), hands (Exod. 9:3; Judg. 2:15; 1 Sam. 7:13; 1 King 18:46; 2 King 3:15; Isa. 5:25; 59:1), face (Lev. 17:10; 20:1-7), and feet (Isa. 63:3). 

The Bible says, “God is spirit, and those who worship him must worship in spirit and truth.” (John 4:24 ESV). That “God is Spirit” means that God does not have a physical body. Jesus Christ who made the statement in John 4:24 also revealed that “No one has seen God at any time. The only begotten Son, who is in the bosom of the Father, He has declared Him.” (John 1:18 NKJV). This was affirmed by John and Paul (1 John 4:12; 1 Tim. 6:16). Paul took the statement a step further. He said, “He alone can never die, and he lives in light so brilliant that no human can approach him. No human eye has ever seen him, nor ever will. All honor and power to him forever! Amen. (1 Tim. 6:16 NLT).

We see therefore that in the passages where God’s body parts are mentioned they are anthropomorphically stated. For example, the hand of God is said to come on Elijah, Elisha and Ezekiel (1 King 18:46; 2 King 3:15; Ezek. 1:3; 8:1). The contexts reveal that the “hand of YHWH (Yahweh)” which came on them was the enabling power of God which, in Christendom, is called the Holy Spirit or the breath of God. In other situations, God moves His anthropomorphic “hand” against those who incur His anger (1 Sam. 5:6, 9; 7:13). In these instances, He moved His power against them. 

Personification vs. Anthropomorphism 

Personification and anthropomorphism are often confused because both terns have similar meanings. Both words convey the idea of attributing human characteristics to nonhuman things or beings. There is a subtle difference between them. And since my intention is to give basic definitions and few examples of some of the figures of speech, I will not touch on the differences between personification and anthropomorphism. Anyone who seeks to have a better grasp of the subject should get a copy of the book “Figures of Speech Used in The Bible” by E. W. Bullinger.  

Symbolism 

Symbolism is a literary device that refers to the use of symbols in a literary work. A symbol is something that stands for or suggests something else; it represents something beyond literal meaning. A symbol can be a word, number, place, object, action, character, people, or concept that embodies and evokes a range of additional meaning and significance. Symbols can be called word pictures. 

A few examples from the Bible are: 

(i)         Rock 

A rock is defined as a large mass of stone forming a cliff, promontory, or peak. The use of rocky sites as places of refuge led to the frequent image of God as a Rock, that is, a source of protection, a hiding place. David, in the days of his flight from King Saul’s persecution used the rocks as defensive structures or strongholds (1 Sam. 23:19-31). These natural hiding places were only effective because of the divine favour he got from God (1 Sam. 23:14). Hence his frequent reference to God as his Rock (2 Sam. 22: 2,3,47; Psa. 18:2), his refuge whom he runs to and is protected from his assailants (2 Sam. 23:3; Psa. 9:9; 46:1,7,11). God is the Rock of His people; He is their eternal hiding place from all human and spiritual enemies. To those who persistently and scornfully disregard the Almighty, there will come a time when the “Rock of Ages” withdraws His divine protection from them, making them vulnerable to attacks by their enemies. See Deut. 32:30-31; Judg. 2:13-15). Also when the wrath of God comes in the last days, no natural rock or mountain can hide anyone from the Rock (Rev. 6:12-17). 

(ii)        Horn  

Horned animals such as bulls and rams use their horns for fighting, protection, and securing dominance. It is from this use of horns that the metaphorical sense of the word horn is derived. Symbolically, therefore, the word “horn” signify strength, honour or dominion. See Dan. 7:7,8,11,21; 8:5-9,21.  

The Psalmist said, “But my horn shalt thou exalt like the horn of an unicorn [a monoceros or “one-horned” animal, more likely a rhinoceros]: I shall be anointed with fresh oil (Psa. 92:10 KJV).  

Here, he praised God for giving him strength and power with which he prevails over the power of the enemy. The term “my horn” is here used metaphorically in comparison with that of a monoceros (one-horned animal) which is believed to have a tremendous strength. 

(iii)       Crowns  

Four types of crowns are mentioned in the Bible. Three of them are (1) crowns worn by kings, (2) wreaths usually made of amaranth flowers that were used to honour people who were victorious at athletic competitions (1 Cor. 9:24-25; 2 Tim. 2:5), and (3) the wreath made of thorns which Roman soldiers wove and placed on the head of the Lord Jesus Christ to mock Him (Matt. 27:29; Mark 15:17; John 19:2,5). These are physical crowns or wreaths which symbolize royalty, victory and honour.  

The fourth type is variously termed “crown of rejoicing” (1 Thes. 2:19), “crown of righteousness” (2 Tim. 4:8), “crown of glory” (1 Pet. 5:4), and “crown of life” (Jam. 1:12; Rev. 2:10). These “crowns” are not literal crowns that will be worn on our heads as kings. The words are used to represent the rewards believers will receive from Christ for their acts of endurance of persecutions, faithfulness and love from loving God and His Christ to the end. Life, glory, honour, rejoicing, righteousness, are abstract things. No one wears them on the head like literal crowns. Rewards will be given to believers on the day of Christ’s appearing (Luke 14:14; 2 Tim. 4:8; Rev. 22:12). It must be mentioned that the erroneous idea of wearing kingly crowns arose partly from the translation errors in some English Bibles. But the “crowns” true believers, including Paul, will wear in God’s kingdom are not literal crowns. Those of us who, through faith in Christ, endure to the end will be rewarded with eternal life. This is what is metaphorically termed “crown of life” in James 1:12 and Rev. 2:10.   

It is heartening to note that some translators of the English Bible have a grasp of the symbolic use of crowns and have reflected such understanding in their publications. The  Contemporary English Version (CEV), for example, renders James 1:12 as, “God will bless you, if you don’t give up when your faith is being tested. He will reward you with a glorious life, just as he rewards everyone who loves him” (Jam. 1:12 CEV).  

The Good News Translation (GNT) renders the verse thus: “Happy are those who remain faithful under trials, because when they succeed in passing such a test, they will receive as their reward the life which God has promised to those who love him. (Jam. 1:12 GNT).  

(iv)       Sword  

An important symbolic representation of sword is found in Revelation which reads, “In his right hand he held seven stars, and coming out of his mouth was a sharp, double-edged sword. His face was like the sun shining in all its brilliance” (Rev. 1:16 NIV). See also Rev. 2:12,16. 

The imagery seen here means that Christ’s sword is not a physical one held with the hands but that which comes from His mouth – the spoken word of power. The word which proceeds from His mouth is a mighty, spiritual sword which no force can withstand (Eph. 6:17; Heb. 4:12). 

(v) Number 7 

There seem to be a consensus among Bible scholars that the number “seven” symbolise completeness and perfection, both physical and spiritual. This symbolism is probably based on the fact that God created the universe in six days, rested on the seventh day and thereafter instituted a seven-day-week for mankind. Seven is used 735 times in the Bible which include 54 times in the Book of Revelation. The word “seventh” is also used 98 times in the Bible. Many people are ignorant of the fact that these numbers are sometimes symbolic. Sometimes they are literal but have underlying mystical meanings. A typical example is the fall of Jericho in Joshua 6. Seven priests were required to bear seven trumpets. The people’s army were to march round the city’s wall once a day for six days. On the seventh day they were to do it seven times. On the seventh day, the seven priests were to blow the trumpets and the army were to give a loud shout. This divine prescription given by God brought down the wall which they couldn’t have been able to pull down by their human power.  

In the Book of Revelation, Jesus sent messages to seven churches. Among the things seen by John were the seven spirits of God, seven golden lampstands, seven stars in the hand of the Lord Jesus Christ, seven lamps, seven seals, seven angels, seven trumpets, seven golden bowls, seven thunders, seven thousand people killed, the dragon (Satan) having seven heads and ten horns, seven plagues, seven hills, seven kings. These sevens are clearly symbolic. Of the symbolical sevens, one is worthy of mention. It is the “seven horns and seven eyes of the Lamb (Jesus Christ). John wrote, “Then I saw a Lamb, looking as if it had been slain, standing at the center of the throne, encircled by the four living creatures and the elders. The Lamb had seven horns and seven eyes, which are the seven spirits of God sent out into all the earth” (Rev. 5:6 NIV).  

The interpretation of the “seven horns and seven eyes” of the Lamb is given in the verse. They represent the “seven spirits of God.”   

Who are the seven spirits of God? Trinitarians say they symbolise a seven-fold manifestation of the Holy Spirit. They often cite Isaiah 11:2 and count the seven gifts or manifestations as (1) the Spirit of the LORD, (2) wisdom, (3) understanding, (4) counsel, (5) might (power), (6) knowledge of the LORD, and (7) fear of the LORD. We know that the term “Spirit of the LORD” is another name for God’s “holy spirit” (Isa. 63:10) or the Holy Spirit. It stands to reason, therefore, that “the spirit of the LORD” cannot be counted as one of the manifestations of itself. We see only six manifestations, not seven, in Isa. 11:2.   

Moreover, the manifestation of God’s holy spirit is not limited to seven. Compare 1 Cor. 12:7-11 where Paul listed nine gifts of the Holy Spirit and Gal. 5:22-23 where he listed nine fruits of the same spirit of the LORD, also known as the Holy Spirit. Prophet Isaiah also enumerated nine gifts or manifestations of the Spirit of the LORD when it rests on the Branch from Jesse (Jesus Christ). They are (1) wisdom, (2) understanding, (3) counsel, (4) might (power), (5) knowledge of the LORD, (6) fear of the LORD, (7) fair judgment, (8) righteousness, and (9) faithfulness (Isa. 11:2-5). It is crude eisegesis that makes anyone stop at the second verse and say “the spirit of the LORD” is one of the seven manifestations of “the spirit of the LORD” which is another name for the Holy Spirit. This absurdity alone exposes the fact that they are wrong. 

But looking at the four verses in Revelation where the seven spirits of God are mentioned (Rev. 1:4; 3:1; 4:5; 5:6), one is led to understand them to be the seven angels of God, probably seven archangels, which always stand before the throne of God and always ready to take orders from God and the Lamb. They are always running errands between heaven and earth (Psa. 104:4; Heb. 1:7,13,14).

In the apocryphal Book of Tobit, the angel Raphael introduced himself as “one of the seven angels who stand in the glorious presence of the Lord, ready to serve Him” (Tobit 12:15). Also in chapter 20 of the apocryphal Book of 1 Enoch, seven holy watchers (angels) are named as Uriel, Raphael, Raguel, Michael, Saraqael, Gabriel, and Ramiel.  

Therefore, to interpret the seven spirits of God as depicting a sevenfold manifestation of God’s spirit is eisegetical and flawed. They are the seven angels of God who always stand before His throne to take orders from Him and the Lamb. After referring to them as the seven spirits of God in the four verses cited, Apostle John said in Rev. 8:2, “And I saw the seven angels who stand before God, and seven trumpets were given to them” (NIV). The definite article  “the” signifies that he had seen them earlier on standing before God (Rev. 1:4; 4:5). The Lamb is said to have or hold the seven spirits of God [in His hand] (Rev. 3:1) because they are fully under His control at the behest of God Himself (Heb. 1:6).  Compare John 10: 28, 29 and Rev. 1:6, 20 where Jesus Christ said that His disciples and messengers (angels) are in His hand as well as in the hand of the Father to ensure their perfect protection, control and salvation.

 (vi)  Number 1000  

Like number 7, the number 1000 in some places appear to be literal but they are actually symbolic in their usage. Examples are: 

“For all the animals of the forest are mine, and I own the cattle on a thousand hills. (Psa. 50:10 NLT). 

“Know therefore that the Lord your God is God; he is the faithful God, keeping his covenant of love to a thousand generations of those who love him and keep his commandments” (Deut. 7:9 NIV). 

“Each one of you will put to flight a thousand of the enemy, for the Lord your God fights for you, just as he has promised. (Josh. 23:10 NLT). 

“A thousand may fall at your side, ten thousand at your right hand, but it will not come near you” (Psa. 91:5-7 NIV). 

“The least of you will become a thousand, the smallest a mighty nation. I am the Lord; in its time I will do this swiftly.” (Isa. 60:22 NIV).  

In all these passages, the literal number 1000 is symbolic in its usage. The writers did not have the literal number 1000 in mind. 

(vii)      Ten Days 

The following statement was made by the Lord Jesus Christ to the church in Smyrna. “Do not be afraid of what you are about to suffer. I tell you, the devil will put some of you in prison to test you, and you will suffer persecution for ten days. Be faithful, even to the point of death, and I will give you life as your victor’s crown” (Rev. 2:10 NIV).  

The “ten days” here is not a literal ten days which make a total of 240 hours. It is a symbolic representation of a short and definite period of time. Whether the period will last a few weeks, months, or years is known only to the Lord. What is commonly believed is that the persecution will not be allowed by God to linger for an unduly long time. Compare Matt. 24:21-22 (Mark 13:19-20) where Jesus Christ said, “For then there will be great tribulation, such as has not been from the beginning of the world until now, no, and never will be. And if those days had not been cut short, no human being would be saved. But for the sake of the elect those days will be cut short. (Matt. 24:21-22 ESV). This shortened period of the tribulation is likely to be what the Lord symbolically referred to as ten days in Revelation 2:10.